Radio propagation is not all cut and dried math. There are circumstances which can cause a signal to go much father than calculated LOS would lead you to believe.
Radio waves generally travel to their destination in four ways:
- Directly from one point to another.
- Along the ground, bending slightly to follow the curvature of the Earth for some distance.
- Traveling a longer distance than normal before coming back to the Earth's surface, because they are trapped in a layer of the Earth's atmosphere.
- Refracted, or bent, back to Earth by the ionosphere. (The ionosphere is a layer of charged particles called ions, in the Earth's outer atmosphere. These ionized gases make long-distance radio contacts possible on the HF bands.
Radio waves can propagate over the horizon when the lower atmosphere of the earth bends, scatters, and/or reflects the electromagnetic fields. These effects are collectively known as tropospheric propagation, or tropo for short. Tropospheric propagation can affect wireless communications, sometimes enhancing the usable range, but also compounding interference problems.
The most well-known form of tropo is called bending. Air reduces radio-wave propagation speed compared with the speed in a vacuum. The greater the air density, the more the air slows the waves, and thus the greater is the index of refraction. The density and index of refraction are highest near the surface, and steadily decrease with altitude. This produces a tendency for radio waves at very-high frequencies (VHF, 30 to 300 MHz) and ultra-high frequencies (UHF, 300 MHz to 3 GHz) to be refracted toward the surface. A wave beamed horizontally can follow the curvature of the earth for hundreds of miles.
The lower atmosphere scatters electromagnetic radiation over a vast range, including radio wavelengths. This effect is known as tropospheric scatter, or troposcatter. In general, troposcatter is most pronounced at UHF and microwave radio frequencies (300 MHz and above). A radio wave beamed slightly above the horizon can be scattered at altitudes up to several miles, making over-the-horizon communication possible. The greatest communications range can be realized over flat land or over water. Scattered waves are weak, so high-power transmitters and sensitive receivers are necessary.
A less common, but often dramatic, form of tropo is called ducting or duct effect. This occurs when there is a defined, horizontal boundary between air masses having different densities. When a cool air mass is overlain by a warm air mass, as is the case along and near warm fronts and cold fronts, radio waves at VHF and UHF are reflected at the boundary if they strike it at a near-grazing angle from beneath (within the cooler air mass). Because radio waves are also reflected from the earth's surface, the result can be efficient propagation for hundreds or, in some cases, upwards of 1,000 miles, as the waves alternately bounce off the frontal boundary and the surface. -- BarryChalcroft
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